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—Lawrence Krauss, 'A Universe from Nothing,' 2012 One July night in a small English village, sometime near the end of the twentieth century, Harry stood by his friend Rodrick as the radio engineer calmly explained his plan to strike at the creator of the universe. Rodrick had decided that he wanted to kill God, and he thought he knew how. This desire was motivated in part by his conviction that the universe should exist on its own, but mostly it was fueled by Rodrick’s deep contempt for the unfairness of existence for which he held God responsible. He explained to Harry that even though God was not material, He must possess at least some material characteristics, for otherwise He would not have been able to create the physical universe.

When prompted to explain how he might be able to reach God, Rodrick remarked that the information had been available to us for a long time: “And God said, Let there be light: and there was light,” (Genesis 1:3). The machine that Rodrick built to carry out his plan was an elabo­rate framework of lasers, mirrors, and prisms, all precisely arranged and calibrated, sitting on the workbench in his home laboratory. He reasoned that it should be possible to generate a self-sustaining pattern of light that would reinforce itself indefinitely, transcending space and time to reach the Creator, striking God with a deadly bolt of energy. The two men adjusted their goggles and Rodrick flipped on the switch. Through the dark lenses, they could make out the pattern of light in front of them as the beams fol­lowed their geometric paths. Gradually, the light intensified, and the brightness started to expand, swallowing the mirrors, the workbench, and the entire room.

An instant later, the light was gone. “That’s it,” announced Rodrick dryly. “God is dead.” Harry looked around, and everything seemed perfectly normal. “Non­sense!” he snarled. Rodrick then removed his goggles to inspect the room, and it was at that moment that the truth was revealed to Harry. He saw his friend’s empty eyes.. Rodrick had indeed killed God, and in the process, he had destroyed every living creature’s soul.

Life went on, and the vast clockwork of the universe continued to tick according to mechanical laws, but all you had to do now was look into people’s eyes to realize that they were all dead inside. There was no beauty, no meaning, no inner life. This is what God supplied when he was alive, after all, reflected Harry. And now it was all gone.

This is a summary of the short story called 'The God Gun,' by science fiction author Barrington Bayley, which was written in the early 1970s. Today, in spite of considerable advances in technology, most people would find Rodrick’s quest futile and hopelessly simpleminded, to say nothing of its evil nature. But Bayley’s story remains powerful because most of us share his intuition that human beings are more than mere collections of physical parts. There must be something else in addition to the atoms and cells that make up our bodies—an essence, a spirit, something precious and beautiful. In short, a soul. This intuition is deeply rooted in the human psyche and has been shared by people across cultures from antiquity to the present day. As Mark Baker and Stewart Goetz observe in their book 'The Soul Hypothesis,' “Most people, at most times, in most places, at most ages have believed that human beings have some kind of soul.” This intuition also plays a central role in most religious doctrines. Pope John Paul II famously articulated the idea in a message delivered to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in October 1996, in which the Holy Father declared that the human body might originate from preexisting living matter, but the spiritual soul is a direct creation of God.

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Explaining the mind as a product of evolution, claimed the pope, was incompatible with the truth about man. Belief in the soul is also very much alive in North American culture today, as the results of numerous polls demonstrate. In my own interviews of college students enrolled in upper-level undergraduate psychology classes like the ones I reg­ularly teach at Rutgers University, I have found that a majority of students also believe that they have a soul. What’s more, these intuitions are con­stantly reinforced by a wealth of books, TV shows, movies, and pronounce­ments made by writers and gurus of all stripes who purport to have found convincing evidence for the existence of the soul. Belief in the immortality of the soul was even featured as the cover story of the October 15, 2012, issue of the magazine Newsweek, with the title 'Heaven Is Real: A Doctor’s Experience of the Afterlife.' In sharp contrast to popular opinion, the current scientific consensus rejects any notion of soul or spirit as separate from the activity of the brain.

This is what Francis Crick, codiscoverer of the structure of DNA, called “The Astonishing Hypothesis.” In Crick’s words, “You, your joys and your sorrows, your memories and your ambitions, your sense of personal iden­tity and free will, are in fact no more than the behavior of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated molecules.” Reflecting on what he calls the scientific image of persons, the philosopher Owen Flanagan stressed that we “need to demythologize persons by rooting out certain unfounded ideas from the perennial philosophy. Letting go of the belief in souls is a minimal requirement. In fact, desouling is the primary operation of the scientific image.” The weight of the scientific consensus is distributed over many dis­ciplines and includes, as we would expect, the sciences of the mind (psy­chology, neuroscience, cognitive science). Harvard psychologist Joshua Greene summarizes the situation as follows. Most people are dualists. Intuitively, we think of ourselves not as physical devices, but as immaterial minds or souls housed in physical bodies.

Most experimental psychologists and neuroscientists disagree, at least officially. The modern science of mind proceeds on the assumption that the mind is simply what the brain does. We don’t talk much about this, however. We scientists take the mind’s physical basis for granted. Among the general public, it’s a touchy subject. Thus, according to Greene, science, like Rodrick’s God-gun, has killed the soul, but scientists are reluctant to announce the news. The soul may indeed be a grand illusion, but it is a useful and comforting one.

Open Pandora’s box and we may be the ones, like Harry, looking into other people’s eyes and discovering that everything has lost its beauty and meaning. The award-winning author Jared Diamond once remarked that science is responsible for dramatic changes to our smug self-image. Astronomy has taught us that our planet is not the navel of the universe.

We learned from biology that we were not created by God but evolved alongside millions of other species. This book is about another seismic change in our self-image.

Most people today believe that we have the bodies of beasts and the souls of angels. Science tells us otherwise. In the pages ahead, I will take you on a tour of history, philosophy, and science to show you that the soul, like geo­centricism and creationism, is a figment of our imagination, and I will try to explain to you what gives rise to the illusion. Modern astronomy and the theory of evolution did not precipitate the end of the world. They are unmis­takable signs of progress. Likewise, I will show you that in spite of repeated claims to the contrary, we lose nothing by letting go of our soul beliefs and—better—that we even have something to gain. It is this empowering conclusion that I want to leave you with as you reach the end of this book.

THE GHOST IN THE MACHINE In a 1999 Edge debate featuring the biologist Richard Dawkins and the psy­chologist Steven Pinker, titled 'Is Science Killing the Soul?,' Dawkins pointed out that the word soul has different senses. One is the traditional idea that there is something incorporeal about us, that the body is spiritualized by a mysterious substance.

In this view, the soul is the nonphysical principle that allows us to tell right from wrong, gives us our ability to reason and have feelings, makes us conscious, and gives us free will. Perhaps most important, the soul is the immortal part of ourselves that can survive the death of our physical body and is capable of happiness or suffering in the afterlife. This is the soul that this book is about.

It is the soul that captures the imagination of a majority of our population. Here’s what some of the students I interviewed wrote about it: Soul to me is the internal self of an individual.

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Soul 4 Real For Life Album Front

It’s separate from the phys­ical part of the body and makes me what I am. It is what I refer to when I am thinking or talking about myself.. I do believe that my soul will survive the death of my body. I think soul is eternal and will still be there long after my body has perished. I believe my soul is the non-material being of myself.

The part that is dis­tinct from both my mind and my external body. I believe the soul to be unchanging and eternal.. Because I think the soul is imperishable I also believe that it will survive the death of my body.

I would define my soul as the spirit inside of me that is currently present in a human form. The properties of the soul are that it contains all of our emotions and feelings. I believe that when I die my soul will live on. These considerations bring up an important issue that has been regu­larly discussed within scientific and skeptical circles: the issue of tone.

In reflecting on this question, the late Carl Sagan, who has done so much for skepticism and the public understanding of science, observed that when skepticism is applied to issues of public concern, as in the present case, there is all too often a tendency to belittle, to condescend, and to disregard the fact that believers are human beings as well, with genuine beliefs and real feelings, people who, like skeptics and scientists, are also trying to under­stand the world and figure out what their place and purpose in it might be. Echoing Sagan’s concerns, the astronomer Phil Plait delivered an address at The Amazing Meeting (TAM) of July 2010 titled, “Don’t Be a Dick” (a maxim related to Wheaton’s Law, which provides guidelines on appropriate online game-playing behavior, but that was also intended to apply to life in general). The gist of Plait’s remarks was that even the best ideas are useless unless they are communicated. And in the case of skepticism, the message communicated has the potential to make people uncomfortable and defen­sive, to say the least.

Consequently, our attitude and the way we communi­cate those ideas takes on critical importance. I must confess that I have been guilty of the bias described above, and I was unaware of it until a student pointed it out to me when she wrote the following: I came into this discussion excited for this new point-of-view and eager to learn, but I remember leaving the lecture hall on the verge of crying. I know that dualism isn’t the best explanation for the world around us, and it’s good to hear both sides, but the way he explained it felt like daggers were being thrown in my heart and my world was shattering. I wish he would’ve let us down gently, like saying “Santa may not be here physically, but he’ll always be in our hearts” instead of just yanking off the beard on the mall Santa and yelling in front of all the little kids, “SANTA ISN’T REAL!” This is beautifully put and painful to read, and I felt sincerely sorry for elic­iting such feelings.

Those remarks also provided an important reality check. Since then, I have become much more sensitive to the issue of tone, and I have made a conscious effort to bear this in mind whenever I discuss the issue of the soul publicly or write about it. Tone, therefore, is something I will be sensitive to in this book.

In doing so, I am reminded of Spinoza’s motto, a dictum named after the seventeenth-century Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza and expressed in these words: “I have made a ceaseless effort not to ridicule, not to bewail, not to scorn human actions, but to understand them.” In this regard, I also wish to make it clear at the outset of our investi­gation that this book is not intended as another broad-brush critique of reli­gion, any more than a condemnation of drunk driving should be construed as a general diatribe against the use of motor vehicles. I am interested in the soul not because it is a religious concept and I have a bone to pick with reli­gion but because it represents a fundamental aspect of human psychology. Truth be told, there is a small group of soul advocates whose ideas I will criticize quite overtly in the pages ahead.

These are the authors of popular books claiming to show that science supports the existence of the soul. I call them the New Dualists. When I discuss their ideas, the tone will be more pointed, if only for rhetorical purposes, but the criticism will always be directed at the ideas themselves rather than at the individuals who proposed these ideas. Besides, the New Dualists are all seasoned writers, and so unlike regular folks, they are used to having their ideas critiqued. This is just part of the game and it comes with the territory.

Needless to say, the same rules also apply to my own ideas. With only one exception, I do not personally know the New Dualists, but I am sure that they are a great bunch, and I would be happy to share a stage with them if the opportunity presented itself.

Finally, I am also aware of the fact that even if I manage to find the right tone, the ideas that I will discuss in this book, and especially the conclu­sions that I will reach, might be offensive and sacrilegious to some. Here lies the dilemma that one finds at the heart of the scientific enterprise. On the one hand, the advancement of knowledge and understanding is a mission of critical importance in any society, and consequently, it is an endeavor that should be undertaken with earnest conviction and zeal. On the other hand, science has the singular property of revealing to us nature’s ways without the kind of sugarcoating that might sometimes be helpful. Reality, for better or worse, happens to be the way it is and not the way we would like it to be. Inevitably, certain conclusions are bound to rub us the wrong way, which is the price we need to pay for looking behind nature’s curtain to take a peek at its true face. Related to the issue of tone, when writing on a sensitive topic, is the issue of tactics.

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